Indicators of Target 9

25. Land area covered by forests

26: Protected areas

27: Energy use per $1 gross domestic product

28: Carbon dioxide emissions (per capita) and consumption of ozone-depleting CFCs

Indicators of Target 10

29: Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source, urban and rural

30: Proportion of urban population with access to improved sanitation

Indicators of Target 11

Status and Trends

Awareness of environmental issues has progressively increased in Turkey since the late 1980s. The Undersecretariat of Environment, established in 1978, was upgraded to the Ministry of Environment in 1991. In May 2003, the Ministry was merged with the Ministry of Forestry by Law No: 4856 as part of the public administration reform.

Environmental policies of development plans have evolved from a passive stance of cleaning up in the aftermath of pollution, to more improved proactive strategies that envisage prevention and incorporate the concept of sustainable development, which requires an integration of environmental, economic and social policies.

Progress has been made in developing legislation with a view to addresing environmental problems and strengthening the institutional structure for environmental management. Despite these positive developments, however, there are deficiencies in the environmental management system, in particular, with regards to the enforcement of legislation, sustainable management of natural resources, integration of environmental policies with economic and social policies and utilization of economic instruments.

Physical planning activities have a direct effect on the country's sustainable environmental development: from the macro planning level (territorial plans) to the urban development plan level. Defined by the Settlement Development Act No: 3194, all physical plans to develop human settlements are made taking into account environmental issues such as pollution, protected areas and resource allocation. Therefore, besides Environment Act No: 2872, the enforcement of Settlement Development Act No: 3194 will ensure environmentally sensitive human settlements.

Target 9: Integrate the Principles of Sustainable Development into Country Policies and Programs, and Reverse the Loss of Environmental Resources

Institutional and Legal Framework

The right to a healthy environment is protected by the Constitution. Sustainable development has been a concern of Turkey since the publication of the Bruntland Report in 1987, and the concept of sustainability has been introduced in the sectoral policies of the Five-Year Development Plans.

Law No: 2872 on the Environment, dated 1983, sets down the main principles of environmental management in Turkey. The law is a framework one, and is principally enforced by means of a number of technical regulations covering different fields in environment management. In addition, Turkey is party to most of the international environmental conventions and protocols, and has endorsed Agenda 21 and the respective decisions of the Economic and Social Council on sustainable development. The principle of common but differentiated responsibilities in meeting the multilaterally agreed targets is also a guiding principle of Turkey.

In addition to a variety of legislative instruments, Turkey has adopted several action plans aimed at achieving multilaterally agreed targets and to implement national environmental policies in a comprehensive manner. In 2004 the National Commission for Sustainable Development was established with a mandate to formulate strategies and advise in the sustainable development area. The State Planning Organization (SPO) is the lead actor and functions as the Secretariat of the Commission.

Sustainable development is a priority area in which Turkey's global commitments through the UN system and its EU accession requirements converge. Currently, the environmental legislation is undergoing a major revision with a view to incorporating the acquis of the European Union, and is expected to contribute to a considerable the improvement in of environmental conditions in the long term. In addition, a new initiative has been launched more recently by the SPO with the financial support of the European Commission and technical support of the UNDP, aiming to formulate and gradually implement a holistic strategy for addressing the environmental objectives in coherence with the long term economic and social development objectives of Turkey across sectors, territory and generations. This activity aims to provide a substantial input to the National Sustainable Development Commission in fulfilling its mandate to give strategic advice and to monitor the sustainability of Turkey's development efforts. By highlighting the environmental perspectives for sustainable development, facilitating policy integration, establishing an indicator based decision support system, supporting national and local institutional structures at the national and local scales, and promoting awareness and participatory mechanisms through a wide array of technical studies, coordinating platforms and working mechanisms, advocacy initiatives and demonstration projects, the initiative is intended to contribute to Turkey's endeavor for sustainable development.

Turkey is also restructuring its physical planning and development principles and mechanisms while enforcing decentralization in order to achieve sustainability and good governance.

Indicator 25: Land Area Covered by Forests

The total land area of Turkey is 77,056,192 hectares and 27.2% (This figure covers both degraded and non-degraded forests, and the definition of the parameter is different from the figure in the MDG database. Relevant figures for MDG indicators are given in Table 22) of this area (21,188,000 hectares) is forestland. Coniferous trees make up 54.4% of the forests in Turkey, and broad-leafed trees account for the remaining 45.6%. Roughly half of the 21.2 million hectares of forestland contains productive forests (10,225 million hectares), with the rest consisting of wooded tract. However, approximately half of Turkey's forests are considered as degraded because of legal and illegal unsustainable practices of the past, as well as the inevitable dependency of rural communities on natural resources.

In order to develop and utilize resources more efficiently, the afforestation of 1,890,000 hectares has been carried out between 1963-2004. However, fires have destroyed a total of 528,000 hectares of forestland and 473,000 hectares of woodland were excluded from the forest regime.

Table 22: Land Area Covered by Forests (%)

Source: Ministry of Environment and Forestry

State investments in forestry amount to $111 million annually, with the exception of protected areas (i.e. national parks, natural parks, etc.), (Konukcu, Mustafa. Forests and Turkish Forestry, SPO, 2001). In the last 15 years a yearly average of 7 million cubic meters of industrial wood has been produced in the country. One of the most significant features that distinguish Turkish forests from the forestry of Western countries is the presence of 20,411 forest villages, located either within or at the edge of the forests. Forest villagers make up 49.5% of the rural population and 14.7% of the total population of the country.

Indicator 26: Areas Protected to Maintain Biodiversity

With its wealth of genetic diversity, Turkey has a unique position. Two important gene centers are located in the country. Turkey also includes diversity centers for many wild, transitional , and cultivated forms of annual and perennial, herbaceous and woody plants. Being in the temperate climatic belt, Turkey is rich in habitat diversity thanks to the heterogeneity of its geomorphology, topography and climate. As a result, Turkey hosts a wealth of plant species. Studies conducted to date have shown that there are 8,745 species of vascular plants in Turkey, and that 2,763 of them are endemic (Turkish Biodiversity and Action Plan, p.7).

"The Biological Diversity and Natural Resource Management Project," which is financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and is implemented in collaboration with the World Bank and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry General Directorate of Nature Conservation and National Parks, became operational in August 2000 and will continue for six years. The objective of the project, which works in parallel with the Turkish Biodiversity and Action Plan, is to establish an effective, intersectoral, participatory planning and sustainable management system for protected areas and natural resources at four selected biodiversity conservation demonstration sites, and build capacity at a national level to facilitate the replication of these activities at priority conservation sites throughout Turkey. The project will establish effective participatory systems for sustainable conservation and natural resource management at four pilot sites selected from Turkey's four main biogeographic zones, and will build the national capacity and public support to catalyze replication of this experience to develop a nationwide network of protected areas. It will also review the legal and regulatory framework for biodiversity conservation in forest planning and management, local land use planning, tourism development, agricultural extension and environmental management of water systems.

Table 23: Ratio of Area Protected to Maintain Biological Diversity to Surface Area (%)

Source: Ministry of Environment and Forestry

The ratio of the area protected to maintain biological diversity increased by almost 40% in the period 1992-2000 and reached 2.89%, marking a moderate, but steady increase.

Atmospheric Pollution

Indicator 27: Energy use per $1 Gross Domestic Product

Air quality in Turkey is assessed according to the standards indicated in the Regulation of Air Pollution Control dated 1986, which determines short- and long-term concentrations for four types of air pollutants. The level of implementation of the statute increases every year. Meanwhile, work is under way to update the Statute to comply with EU norms.

Although there are some deficiencies in air quality monitoring, the limited data available indicate s that except for some industrial areas and cities, air pollution is not a serious problem, even in large cities. As with other countries, the major sources of air pollution are industrial plants, energy production and transportation.

Over the past decade, the expanding use of natural gas for residential heating, particularly in large cities, and the efforts of local administrations to promote the use of natural gas have contributed to improving the quality of air. Natural gas constitutes 20.6% (in 2002) of the total primary energy consumption in Turkey. Likewise, there are positive developments in reducing air pollution due to transportation, especially in larger cities, as a result of the expansion of subway systems, the increase in the number of vehicles running on unleaded gasoline, use of LPG in commercial taxis and wider use of coal with reduced sulfur content.

Energy consumption in Turkey has increased continually over the past years and reached 78.3 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2002. The demand for electrical energy has increased with great speed because of the ongoing industrialization process and population growth. The demand for electrical energy is met primarily from thermal and hydro-electric sources. Thermal energy production has a prominent place as it relies on domestic resources. Energy production and consumption have not yet reached the desired levels, and Turkey lags behind the OECD average in terms of total primary energy supply per $1 GDP (National Report on Sustainable Development, 2002).

Table 24: Energy Intensity: Energy Use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP)

Source: SIS, Energy Indicators

Energy use per $1 GDP fluctuated between 1990 and 2003. During this 14-year period the indicator floated between a low of 3.27 and a high of 8.76. The most important reason for this fluctuation is the unstable economic environment in Turkey. Due to devaluations and an unstable foreign exchange rate, fluctuations occurred in both energy prices and the GDP of Turkey. As the Turkish Lira depreciated against the dollar, Turkey's GDP decreased, but the unit price of energy increased. That is, the trends in energy use per $1 GDP, which is affected by both the fluctuations in energy prices and economic instability, do not necessarily represent a parallelism with environmental sustainability in Turkey.

Indicator 28: Carbon Dioxide Emissions (Per Capita) and Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs

At the meeting of the UNFCCC Intergovernmental Negotiation Committee in New York in May 1992, Turkey was included in the Annex I list with OECD-member countries and countries with economies in transition, as well as in the Annex II list along with the OECD countries. Since Turkey was regarded as being among the industrialized countries under this arrangement, and thus was obliged to comply with the rules that apply to this group, it could not be a party to the Convention. Nevertheless, Turkey continued to follow the UNFCCC process and requested to become a party to the Convention, subject to the removal of its name from both Annexes. At the Marrakech Conference (2001) a decision was adopted to amend the Annex II list of the Convention by removing Turkey, and the Parties were invited to recognize the special circumstances that Turkey would define upon becoming a party, which places Turkey in a situation different from other Parties included in Annex I of the Convention. With this amendment Turkey has ratified the Convention and became a party on 24 May 2004 (National Report on Sustainable Development).

In Turkey, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are by far the highest compared to other greenhouse gas emissions. Owing to the increase in fuel consumption, the high rates of increase in CO2 emissions from both past and projected levels of consumption require special attention.

Table 25: Carbon Dioxide Emissions (Per Capita)

Source: SIS, Environmental Statistics

The increase in per capita carbon dioxide emissions rate from 2.79 in 1995 to 3.14 in 2001, which roughly corresponds to a 10% increase, after remaining almost stable between 1995 and 2001, is a cause for concern.

Table 26: Consumption of Ozone-Depleting CFCs in ODP Metric Tonnes

Source: Ministry of Environment and Forestry

The consumption of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (ODP metric tonnes) witnessed a dramatic decrease between 1995 and 2002. In 1995, 3,798 metric tonnes of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons were used. However, in 2001 the consumption rate decreased to 733, followed by a decrease to 699 in 2002. Clearly, much progress has been achieved in this area.

Turkey started to freeze the use of CFCs before most of the Article 5 countries of the Montreal Protocol, and received an outstanding achievement award from the UNDP in 1997. However, despite this success, Turkey has certain deficiencies such as financing required investments required in basic industries, such as like refrigeration. The Turkish Refrigeration Project targets to completely phase out CFCs by 2006.

Target 10: Target 10: Halve by 2015 the Proportion of People Without Sustainable Access to Safe Drinking Water and Sanitation

One of the most important policies of development in Turkey has been increasing the ratio of the population that has access to basic drinking water and the sanitation infrastructure in accordance with national sustainable development goals. For this purpose over US $1 billion has been invested annually in water supply and sanitation infrastructure over the last 15 years.

The availability of improved water and an adequate sanitation system is essential for minimizing the risk of disease. Since this indicator is closely linked with other socio-economic indicators and with the quality of life and general hygiene, it is considered as one of the most important indicators of sustainable development.

The Ministry of Public Works and Settlement General Directorate of the Bank of Provinces (Iller Bank) provides financial and technical assistance to municipalities, villages and provincial administrations for settlement development besides its banking operations.

The establishment of a connection to the sewage system in urban centers and to a septic tank system in rural areas for all households is targeted in the provision of sanitation services. The main resources for financing will be the fees charged to the subscribers for the establishment of the infrastructure. However, because these services have a public aspect, funds from national and international financial resources will also be allocated to these investments.

Indicator 29: Proportion of the Population with Sustainable Access to an Improved Water Source (Urban and Rural)

Table 27: Proportion of the Population with Access to Safe Drinking Water

Source: SIS, Household Budget Survey

According to recent data, access to safe drinking water increased from 83.1 to 93.6 between 1994 and 2002. Access to safe drinking water was 99.3% for urban settlements and 85.1% for rural in 2002.

The term "Access to Safe Drinking Water" is different from "Access to Improved Drinking Water." Safe drinking water surveys are conducted on the basis of the population having a piped water system in their houses. Public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells and protected springs are not considered as safe drinking water sources. However, a piped water system in a courtyard that is shared by more than two households is considered a safe drinking water source. The surveys do not include the members of the population living in houses for the elderly and children, hotels, hospitals, prisons or military barracks.

The definition of improved water has changed over time. For this reason, comparisons based on information from past sources should be made with care. In various studies in Turkey, the different response categories used have also made comparisons difficult. The questions asked in the production of the data for this indicator and the response categories need to be standardized so that they do not show variations among different studies over time.

Indicator 30: Proportion of the Urban Population with Access to Improved Sanitation (Urban and Rural)

The proportion of the population using safe sanitation increased from 67.4% in 1994 to 80.2% in 2002. This improvement is especially significant considering the increase in the population.

Table 28: Proportion of Population with Access to Safe Sanitation

Source: SIS, Household Budget Survey

Households with toilets are included in this survey. "Toilet" is defined as an enclosed space indoor that has a separate door, and allows all human excreta and wastewater to be discharged into the sewage system or septic tanks. The population living in houses for the elderly and children, hotels, hospitals, prisons and military barracks are not included in this survey. Because of this definition, the percentage in rural areas is very low. WHO considers pour-flush latrines, simple pit latrines and ventilated improved pit latrine systems to be improved rather than safe sanitation systems.

Two other surveys were conducted in 1993 and 1998 in accordance with WHO's improved sanitation definition. According to the Turkey-Demographic and Health Survey conducted in 1993 by Hacettepe University Institute of Population Studies, 98.4% of households in Turkey had a toilet connected to the sewage system with a closed (29.4%) or open pit (9.7%). In the 1998 survey, 96.3% of the households in Turkey had a toilet connected to the sewage system (67.4%), with a closed (19%) or open pit (9.9%).

Even though the value of this indicator in Turkey is high, the widespread use of closed and open pits besides the sewage system, especially in rural areas, is a serious problem. Since the indicator value for Turkey is high, it is accepted that the target will be achieved. The main concern now is to increase the quality and hygiene of the services. For this purpose, while construction of sewage networks is supported in cities, use of septic tanks and sewage networks are expanded in rural areas. The related legislation is has been revised recently, and the responsibility of treatment plant construction by the related administrations within a given time period became a must.

Target 11: Achieve, by 2020, a Significant Improvement in the Lives of at Least 100 Million Slum Dwellers

As of 2000, it is estimated that there is are a total of about 14.8 million housing units, 10.2 million of which are located in regions with a population of 20,000 or more. The housing problem is the major indicator of the unplanned urbanization that emerged as a result of rapid population growth and migration. The urbanization rateremains significant for economic and social policies.

The estimated number of houses built in the 8th Plan Period (2001-2005) is about 1.3 million, which falls considerably short of the new housing need projection of 2,450,000 for the same time period. It is certain that illegal buildings and squatters fill the gap left by the unmet housing requirement and the provision of lots with urban infrastructure.

The number of illegal buildings accumulated in the three largest cities is estimated as about 2 million. The trend has spread throughout the country, spoiling the physical appearance and environmental quality and living standards in the cities.

The Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, has aimed to achieve urban transformation through Squatter Act No: 775 since 1966 and structuring urban and rural development through the Settlement Development Act No: 3194, dated 1985.

After 1995, various municipalities have carried out urban regeneration and renewal projects individually, especially in the slum areas of big cities. Recently, urban transformation projects have been applied by Greater Municipalities in disaster prone regions and slum areas. Major legislative changes are required in order to establish a more comprehensive and rational basis for the implementation of urban regeneration, rehabilitation and transformation projects. The Ministry is currently revising the Settlement Development Act within this perspective and is supporting other institutions for further implementation.

Indicator 31: Proportion of Households with Access to Secure Tenure (Owned or Rented)

There is no reliable data on households with access to secure tenure.

Relevant Policies

General Environment Sector Policy Documents and Target 9

•  8th Five-Year Development Plan covering 2001-2005 and its Annual Programs

•  National Environmental Strategy and Action Plan, 1999

•  National Report on Sustainable Development, 2002

•  Environment Law No: 2872, dated 1983

•  National Program for Adoption of the EU Acquis, dated July 2003

•  National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, dated 2001

•  Forest Law No: 6831, dated 1956

•  Law No: 2873 on National Parks, dated 1983

•  Forest Master Plan covering years 1990-2010, dated 1988

•  Local Agenda 21 Programme, dated 1997.

•  National Environmental Strategy and the Action Plan (2002)

Related Legislation and Documentation

•  Settlement Development Act No: 3194, dated 1985 (under revision)

Target 10

•  Environment Law No: 2872, dated 1983

•  Regulation on Water Pollution Control

•  Regulation on Water Use for Humanitarian Consumption Purposes

•  Drinking and Potable Water Standard (TS 266)

•  Circular on Waste Water (2000/39)

Target 11

•  Decree with the force of Law No: 180 on the Establishment of Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, dated 1983

•  Act on the Establishment of the Mass Housing Administration No: 2985, dated 1984

•  Squatter Act No: 775, dated 1966

•  Settlement Development Act No: 3194, dated 1985 (under revision)

•  Building Inspection Act No: 4708i dated 2001.

•  Law of Iller Bank No: 4759, dated 1945.

•  Settlement Act No: 2510, dated 1934.

•  Greater Municipalities Act No: 3030, dated 1984.

•  Provincial Special Administration Act No: 5302

Related Documentation

•  Habitat II, National Report and Plan of Action, June 1996

Benchmarks and Monitoring Capabilities

The main sources for environmental statistics are the State Institute of Statistics and the Ministry of Environment and Forestry. Deficiencies in the collection of environmental data caused by the diversity of environment-related issues are barriers to the making of environmental assessments. Data and information access systems, the environmental monitoring and measuring infrastructure, environment inventories, statistics and standards concerning the environment and development need further improvement. Although some projects have been initiated to organize environmental data, because of technical and organizational problems a systematic approach has yet to be devised.

The different response categories for the different definitions of improved water supply and improved sanitation services in various studies also make comparisons difficult. Therefore, the definitions should be standardized.

In the case of human settlement issues, the State Institute of Statistics is the main source of information. Some municipalities are making efforts to develop their own physical information data source by using geographical information system (GIS) techniques.

The Ministry of Public Works and Settlement has been analyzing the UN-HABITAT's Urban Indicators Program. The Ministry is also developing information tools to raise public awareness on the related issues.

Targets and Indicators

Monitoring Capability

Challenges

The desired progress toward an economic development process that protects human health and the natural balance, ensures proper management of natural resources and strives to pass down a healthier natural, physical and social environment in line with the sustainable development approach has not yet materialized. Environmental policies have not been fully integrated in to economic and social policies, and economic means have not been optimized.

More specifically, incomplete cadastral studies, a lack of comprehensive site inventories, insufficient multipurpose forest management planning, inadequacy of protected areas and insufficient annual afforestation due to financial constraints constitute the fundamental problems in the forestry sector.

As indicated above, an urgent need to strengthen and organize the systems for the monitoring and collection of environment-related data still exists. After the completion of the ongoing reform efforts for the decentralization and strengthening of local administrations, the requirements and the designation of responsibilities for the establishment of a data collection and monitoring system will become clearer.

The main difficulty in providing access to continuous and sufficient potable water in suburban settlements is the lack of an adequate infrastructure.

The lack of treatment plants and the financial incapability of the administrations for their construction are the basic sanitation problems.

The resources of local administrations (financial, technical, institutional capacity) have not increased commensurately with the demand for urban services created by population growth.

In the case of slum areas, the main challenges are law enforcement, low-income levels, economic instability, unemployment and the unavailability of legal housing to respond to the needs and the income level of the population.

An uncontrolled increase of the building stock hampers efforts to take preventive measures against disasters, especially against floods, earthquakes and fires.

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